Interpersonal and international conflicts are analogous---debate’s key to resolving those disputes

Conflict is experienced at all levels of human activity. Despite the diversity in level (from interpersonal to international) and intensity (from minor disagreements to major armed and violent wars), there are common insights and approaches to understanding the nature of conflict and managing it peacefully.

In its simplest form, conflict refers to the pursuit of incompatible goals by individuals or groups. In other words, conflict situations arise when individuals or groups identify a goal they want to secure in order to satisfy material interests, needs or values. When these perceptions lead to actions that come up against the interests, needs and values of others, a conflict dynamic occurs. This definition suggests a broader span of time and a wider class of struggle than just armed conflict. The use of such a broad definition allows for the consideration of any conflict, whether it is interpersonal or international, whether it is pursued by peaceful means or by the use of force.

Armed conflict is a narrower category, denoting conflicts whereby parties on both sides resort to the use of force. It is difficult to define, as it includes situations ranging from a military overflight, an attack on a civilian by a single soldier, or an all-out war with massive casualties. Violent conflict or deadly conflict is similar to armed conflict, but it also includes one-sided violence, for example, genocide against unarmed civilians. It also encompasses the broader peace research concept of violence that includes exploitative social relations that cause unnecessary suffering (that is, structural violence). Contemporary conflict refers to the prevailing pattern of political and violent conflicts in the post-Cold War world, while contemporary armed conflict refers to those that involve the use of force.

3. Conflict Structure and Dynamics

Conflicts are complex processes. However, all conflict situations have certain basic elements in common. One way of conceptualising the relationship between these elements is a “conflict triangle” (illustrated in Diagram 2-2), with structures, attitudes, and behaviours at the points. Galtung first proposed this model for understanding conflict.

• Structures refer to the political mechanisms, processes, and institutions that influence the satisfaction of security, welfare, recognition and identity needs.

• Attitudes include the parties’ perceptions and misperceptions of each other and of themselves. These may be positive or negative, but in violent conflict parties tend to develop increasingly negative stereotypes of the other and an increasingly positive selfgroup identity. Attitudes are often influenced by emotions such as fear, anger, bitterness and hatred.

• Behaviours are actions undertaken by one party in conflict aimed at the opposing party with the intention of making that party abandon or change its goals. It includes cooperation and coercion, gestures signifying conciliation or hostility. Violent conflict behaviour is characterised by threats, coercion and destructive attacks.

Conflict is a dynamic process in which structures, attitudes and behaviours are constantly changing and influencing one another. A conflict emerges as parties’ interests come into conflict or the relationship they are in becomes oppressive. Conflict parties then begin to develop hostile attitudes and conflictual behaviour. The conflict formation starts to grow and develop. As it does so, the conflict may widen (drawing in other parties), deepen (becoming more protracted and possibly violent), and spread (generating secondary conflicts within the main parties or among outsiders). This complicates the task of addressing the original, core conflict. Eventually, resolving the conflict must involve a set of dynamic, interdependent changes that involve de-escalation of conflict behaviour, change in attitudes, and transformation of relationships or structures.