How do Globalization and Democracy Interact? The delineation of these essential elements of democracy is important because it tells us where to look for problems in the relationship with capitalism. If capitalism makes achieving these elements more difficult or impossible, then the two institutions will clash. Instead of reinforcing one another, they will undermine each other. Hence, one view is that without serious restrictions on capitalism, democracy will be imperiled. On the other hand, some claim that without restrictions on democracy, capitalism could be imperiled. From Marx onward, numerous scholars have claimed that democracy has been limited in order to preserve capitalism. For Marx, the institutions of the state were built to protect capitalism; democracy was just the “dictatorship of the bourgeois” hiding behind a veil. The capitalist state was designed to protect the collective interests of the capitalist class against the working class and against the short-sighted behavior of individual capitalists; thus the state had some autonomy.12 But for Marx and many Marxists, democracy itself was a sham set up to protect capitalism. More recently, Slobodian argues that the entire neoliberal system of international institutions set up since the 1950s has served to protect capitalism against democracy: the entire “neoliberal project focused on designing institutions–not to liberate markets but to encase them, to inoculate capitalism against the threat of democracy” (Slobodian 2018, 2). For many on the left of the political spectrum, capitalism makes democracy impure at best and impossible at worst. For others from the right, government intervention in the economy even decided democratically can ruin capitalism and thus destroy individual freedom. Laissez-faire doctrine advocated the most limited interference of politics in the matters of the economy. Hayek (1976) among many feared that any government intervention corrupted capitalism and that only the most minimal state was desirable. “The system of private property is the most important guaranty of freedom, not only for those who own property, but scarcely less for those who do not . . . If all the means of production were vested in a single hand, . . . whoever exercises this control has complete power over us” (Hayek 1976, 103). Freedom is the highest goal, but capitalism—not democracy—brings freedom. The protection of private property was necessary for democracy in the first place.13 Economic conservatives such as Hayek decried government intervention in the economy and the creation of large social welfare systems. The balance between unregulated markets and government intervention has long been a central issue in politics. This balance has been changing over time, especially as globalization has spread. Global capitalism seems to have given capitalists a stronger hand relative to either labor or the state (Bates and Lien 1985). Laissez-faire and austerity have gained in prominence as labor unions have shrunk, center left parties have declined, and social welfare spending and redistribution have fallen out of favor (Blyth 2013). Political Equality and Economic Inequality As noted above, an essential element of democracy is the idea of political equality. All adult citizens should be treated equally by the state and should have equal political rights. What political equality means may be debated, but citizens do expect some kind of equal treatment by their government. The problem this runs into is the economic inequality generated by capitalism (Piketty 2014). Economic inequality has increased very substantially within countries across most of the world since the 1990s (Bourguignon 2015). This rise has been especially notable in the advanced industrial countries, particularly the United States and UK. While rates of absolute poverty across the world have plummeted, one particularly contentious issue is whether globalization has fueled the rise in within-country inequalities. For example, the Gini index for income distribution in the United States has worsened steadily from 0.36 in 1970 to 0.41 in 2015 (Lahoti, Jayadev, and Reddy 2016). By 2008, the level of inequality in the United States, as measured by the share of family income for the top 10 percent, had returned to the highest levels recorded in the early twentieth century (Bourguignon 2015, 48). The middle four deciles of the income distribution in the United States saw a similar decline in income share from 1980 (0.46) to 2014 (0.40). However, growth in inequality in Europe has been less pronounced with the income share of the middle four deciles sharply dropping in the UK and more moderately decreasing in Germany and France (Blanchet, Chancel, and Gethin 2019). While unemployment in the United States has been low, wage growth especially in the middle and low skill occupations has been very limited in the past few decades. “Since 2000, [US] weekly wages have risen 3% (in real terms) among workers in the lowest tenth of the earnings distribution and 4.3% among the lowest quarter. But among people in the top tenth of the distribution, real wages have risen a cumulative 15.7%, . . . nearly five times the usual weekly earnings of the bottom tenth” (Desilver 2018).14 In the United States by 2010, the top 10 percent of the income distribution has received over half of all wage gains during the past 30 years, and the top 1 percent and 0.01 percent had received most of that (Bourguignon 2015, 49). In Europe, slow wage growth has been combined in many countries with high unemployment. In many of the OECD countries, the concentration of wealth, as opposed to income, is even more stark and has grown worse as well. International trade appears to have amplified inequality in developed countries by deepening the high-skill and low skill labor divide (Wood 1994; Ebenstein et al. 2013). Surprisingly, there is some evidence this is happening in the developing world as well (Harrison and Hanson 1999). The problem is that this period of rising within country inequality corresponds to the period of globalization’s fastest growth. It looks as if, and perhaps is the case that, they are related.15 But the impression is that globalization has benefited a small elite and not the whole society or even the middle class. The majority is losing and this should not happen in a democracy. The sense that the system is rigged and only the rich benefit from openness is pervasive and growing. Anger and resentment are rising in publics as they see only a small segment of society gaining from globalization, and as everyone else becomes a relative loser (Galston 2018).16 The pervasive sense is that elites have captured the political system and opened up the economy to external forces that benefit only the rich and well connected. Inequality also seems to drive support for a main policy advocated by populist parties, that is, for protectionism, thus challenging the foundations of the liberal global order (Lü, Scheve, and Slaughter 2010). Another issue is that any sense of political equality is hard to sustain when economic inequality is large. If the wealthy have, or are seen to have, special access to political leaders and more influence over elections because of their money, then political equality is undermined. As Przeworski says, “When groups compete for political influence, when money enters politics, economic power gets transformed into political power, and political power in turn becomes instrumental to economic power ....Access of money to politics is the scourge of democracy” (Przeworski 2016, 5). Research suggests that the rich do have more access and influence over politics (Bartels 2008; Gilens 2012). As the rich become richer, their influence magnifies, policy diverges more from the median voter’s preferences, and democracy seems less and less legitimate to the average citizen. If globalization is linked to rising inequality, then we may fear for democracy because research shows that democracy does not do well in conditions of high inequality (Boix 2003; Ziblatt 2008).17 Globalization may then indirectly undermine support for democracy as it enables greater economic inequality (Elkjær and Iversen 2020). It is important to note that the Covid-19 pandemic seems to be increasing inequality as it rages in different countries. High-skill workers have maintained their jobs and avoided the virus by telecommuting. Lower skill workers who are usually paid less have been more likely to lose their jobs and get sick (Davis, Ghent, and Gregory 2021; Deaton 2021). And large firms with abundant capital have expanded as their small rivals are driven out of business by the pandemic closures (Bartik et al. 2020) Capital is being concentrated even more by this plague. It has also increased individual insecurity and reduced social capital as people cannot congregate and socialize. Creative Destruction and Economic Insecurity Capitalism is marked by rapid change and technological advances. As many have noted, it is a very dynamic system that incentivizes change, upgrading, and innovation. In the process, however, it destroys the old, the familiar, and the once lucrative. Schumpeter termed this essential dynamic, creative destruction (Schumpeter 1942). There is also evidence that innovations and adoption of new technologies spread in waves over time, sometimes leading to deep and rapid changes (Milner and Solstad 2021). These technological revolutions then produce side effects in social and political life. The first industrial revolution from about 1760 to 1830 saw a spurt of activity around iron and steel, coal, and steam engines (Mokyr 2009). The second industrial revolution from the 1870s to early 1900s again brought a surge in new technologies including railroads, mass assembly, automobiles, telegraph and radio, and electricity (Gordon 2017). Recently we have witnessed another technological revolution, the so-called digital revolution, and it is now having widespread effects. It is not just disruptions to labor markets that matter, but also shocks to information and communications systems, changes in social organization and disruptions of existing institutions. These rapid changes create insecurity for people who are, or believe they will be, negatively affected.18 This personal insecurity is likely to have political ramifications, especially when social protection is weak (Mughan 2007; Margalit 2011; Hacker, Rehm, and Schlesinger 2013; Rehm 2016). Capitalism has brought forth many changes in markets, especially in labor markets over time. Old industries die and new ones emerge, but labor and capital are often slow to keep pace with these changes. Boix (2019) argues that first period of globalization in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century was accompanied by technological change which generated more jobs than it displaced. This earlier wave of disruption was job inducing, and the new technology then was complementary to labor. The second period of globalization occurring recently is different; the new technologies are job displacing and substitute for labor. These two conditions produce very different politics. Boix (2019), however, still thinks that democracy can persist in this second period, as do others who see democracy as extremely resilient (Iversen and Soskice 2019). But many others are more pessimistic, worrying that the effects of technology now are enhancing inequality and destroying decent jobs (Baldwin 2019). A primary example has been the rise and fall of manufacturing industries, especially in the advanced industrial countries. Industrial employment as a percentage of the civilian labor force has dropped from 38.8 percent in 1970, 25 percent in 2007, and falling to 18.8 percent in 2016 among the original 23 OECD countries (Armingeon et al. 2019). Offshoring has been a main ingredient in this process, and more recently the development of global value chains across borders has accelerated these changes. This deindustrialization has generated much economic insecurity as higher wage-paying, blue-collar jobs have disappeared with it (Hacker 2008; Milberg and Winkler 2013). In addition, the new jobs produced have often been inferior to the old ones lost; this inferiority concerns not just wages but also the terms of employment, which have become less secure and more temporary in the so-called gig economy. “Employment precariousness,” or the lack of a “decent job,” is another aspect of this technological revolution (Lorey 2015). “Fixed-term employment contracts, temporary work and part-time work in developed countries, and informal jobs with irregular working hours, low earnings and uncertain futures in developing countries” (Bourguignon 2015, 63), which are the telltale indicators of this precariousness, have grown greatly. “In France, employment precariousness has increased significantly over the last twenty years, from 8% in 1990 to 12% of total employment in the 2000s” (Bourguignon 2015, 63–64). Skill-biased technological change and trade with the developing world have been largely responsible, as they have helped fuel offshoring and global value chains (Michaels, Natraj, and Van Reenen 2014; Doraszelski and Jaumandreu 2018). Hence, despite the fact that unemployment in many developed countries had fallen to low levels before the pandemic, personal insecurity has been pervasive because wages and working conditions have worsened, especially for lower skilled workers. Global capitalism produces a double dose of technological change. Capitalism itself is very disruptive, but on a global scale it accelerates this change. Research shows that few countries innovate and that most adopt innovations from elsewhere (Keller 2004). The speed of this adoption varies from country to country and over time, but globally-integrated markets make these changes more rapid and widespread (Mokyr 1994; Taylor 2016; Milner and Solstad 2021). The third technological revolution then also is different because it is probably the fastest and most wide-ranging. It has brought even more economic anxiety and insecurity than past revolutions. The insecurity generated by capitalism has long been noted. Furthermore, capitalism on a global scale seems to amplify this insecurity since international capital and labor flows may be ever more politically destabilizing (Scheve and Slaughter 2004). Economic crises like the global financial one of 2008–2009, which often are fostered by globalization, exacerbate this insecurity as well. Indeed, the creation of social welfare states was intended to help damp down this anxiety and reduce the frictions associated with economic change and crises. Polanyi (1957) long ago noted that left exposed to unregulated markets, people would turn away from democracy and toward extreme political solutions. The risks and insecurities generated by capitalism needed to be alleviated by social protection. The idea was to “embed” markets in social and political relations by having governments intervene to provide compensation to people affected by market volatility. After World War II, markets for capital and labor flows across borders were regulated as trade was slowly liberalized, and stability and growth with redistribution were paramount for the advanced industrial democracies until the 1980s. After World War II, embedded liberalism in the Western world was the compromise that arose to make democracy and capitalism compatible (Ruggie 1982). As noted by Lim (2020, 67–68), “Studies of Western democratic countries have found that citizens who are exposed to the risks and uncertainties of global capitalism demand greater social protection from their government (Burgoon 2001; Cusack, Iversen, and Rehm 2006; Walter 2010; Margalit 2011). Empirical analyses also have revealed that more open economies tended to have larger public spending to compensate for and insure against the vagaries of an open economy (Garrett 1995; Rodrik 1997, 1998; Rickard 2012; Nooruddin and Rudra 2014).” Others show that technological adoption is faster and acceptance of new technologies is higher when welfare state generosity is greater (Lim 2020). Up to the 1990s, the embedded liberalism compromise seemed to be reconciling democracy and global capitalism. Embedded liberalism, however, has come under sustained pressure as globalization has advanced. The combination of slowing or declining welfare efforts plus the growth of globalization have increased insecurity and reduced support for people facing it. Scholars have pointed to these changes as being a source of the rise of populism and the extreme right in various countries. Margalit (2011) shows that where job losses from foreign competition were high, incumbent politicians in the United States were more likely to lose and especially so if the job losses were not compensated. Autor et al. (2020) provide evidence that the trade shock from Chinese entry into the WTO led to increasing political polarization in the United States. Jensen, Quinn, and Weymouth (2017, 1) demonstrate that “increasing imports (exports) [in a region] are associated with decreasing (increasing) [US] presidential incumbent vote shares.” Colantone and Stanig (2018a,b) provide data showing that support for right-wing, nationalist and populist parties and for Brexit came from areas hardest hit by globalization, in particular trade shocks and immigration. Burgoon (2001) points out that the backlash against globalization is less in areas where social welfare provision is highest. Milner (2018, 2021), on the other hand, argues that in areas with more trade flows support for extreme right parties is stronger and that social welfare provision does not seem to temper this political backlash against globalization any longer. As globalization has proceeded and welfare states have not expanded to match this, personal insecurity has grown and its political consequences are increasingly manifest. As Rodrik (1997) noted, increasing global economic integration produces more public demands on governments for social protection while concurrently undermining their ability to supply these policies because they require considerable public expenditure, which globalization may prevent. Insecurity can also be a product of the new information technologies today. The gig economy is in part made possible by such technologies. Surveillance technology may make people feel safer, but it may also enable governments to monitor their citizens and create new fears. While social media may enhance accountability pressures, it may also generate confusion and fake news. Many new sources of information have become easily available, often creating political and social problems. There is deep concern that new information technologies have helped disseminate populist political views. Social media in particular can undermine confidence in and the legitimacy of mainstream parties and leaders by transmitting false and damaging views of them (Tucker et al. 2017). International interference to exert political influence may also be easier to accomplish and disguise with these technologies. Creating confusion about what the facts are, disseminating fringe views as if they were credible, and sowing doubt about the validity and legitimacy of key democratic practices like elections are all means for generating greater insecurity and boosting populist support. Global Interdependence Deep integration of national economies through trade, capital markets, and immigration poses direct challenges for democracy. Above, I noted the indirect ways that globalization might undermine support for democracy, first by increasing inequality and second by fostering faster technological change. But globalization may also have more direct effects. I discuss three such effects here: increasing economic policy constraints on the government; pushing convergence on economic policy choices; and creating more need for international cooperation and governance. Each of these means that governments have less control over the economy, less room for partisan competition, and less autonomy. Globalization seems to produce three inter-related processes that might undermine support for democracy. As trade, capital, and labor flows grow in importance, governments become increasingly constrained; governments can always opt out of this but the costs of doing so rise as globalization proceeds. First, globalization can undercut the government’s ability to direct the economy. The government’s policy instruments become more limited and less effective. With an open economy, macroeconomic policy and exchange rate policy become more interdependent and less effective, especially for smaller economies (Frieden and Rogowski 1996; Broz and Frieden 2001). As countries joined the WTO and signed preferential trade agreements, trade policy and investment policy have become more constrained as well. Fiscal policy in an open economy also loses some of its effect as it flows across borders. While some scholars have noted that larger and more developed countries have more room to maneuver (Mosley 2003), others have noted the shrinking field of policy choice and autonomy open to countries (Rodrik 1997, 2011). Policy autonomy and efficacy matter for democracies because the public often judges governments and parties on the basis of economic outcomes (Kosmidis 2018; Duch and Stevenson 2010, 2008). When governments lose the ability to direct the economy, democratic accountability is weakened and so is its legitimacy (Hellwig 2001; Hellwig and Samuels 2007; Hellwig 2015). A second process that might undercut democracy is the policy convergence and consensus that has grown with globalization. As governments around the world increasingly liberalized trade and opened their capital markets, policy converged and consensus grew across parties about the value of openness and to some extent deregulation as well as austerity. Differences among left and right centrist parties on their platforms diminished, and publics began to view all mainstream parties as very similar (Sen and Barry 2020; Ward et al. 2015). Globalization may force parties to converge on their economic policies, restricting parties’ ability to differentiate themselves and thus to effectively compete against other parties on economic issues.19 The consensus over economic policies and globalization has left many European Social Democratic parties losing vote share and public support (Mair 2000). This convergence has created an opening for extreme right and populist parties to generate support.20 As (Mughan, Bean, and McAllister 2003, 619) points out,“By virtue of their commitment to economic internationalization, the established parties of government are blamed by populists for turning a blind eye and a deaf ear to workers’ legitimate concerns for their job security in an increasingly global, competitive, and volatile labor market. Blaming it on established parties’ commitment to economic globalization, in other words, right-wing populist parties have commonly sought electoral advantage by turning job insecurity into a political issue.” If vigorous party competition along programmatic lines is central to democracy, then globalization may be undermining it. And lack of partisan competition among centrist parties may enable more extreme parties to gain support. The third element is that globalization has also raised pressure on governments to coordinate their polices to eliminate externalities (Milner 1997). A more open economy implies a greater need to cooperate and coordinate with other countries. The past 30 years have seen many international regimes and institutions created to deal with global problems, all of which have constrained governments even more. The IMF, World Bank, OECD, EU, WTO, regional development banks, and many preferential trade agreements are the major examples of these multilateral economic institutions; each of which produces norms, rules, and procedures that members are expected to follow. They constrain government policy choices domestically; they appear to impose decisions from unelected international elites on the public; and they push all parties who might be in government to adopt similar policies. Many of these have generated popular dissatisfaction and resentment, being seen as undemocratic and as undermining democracy and its legitimacy at home. The EU is a prime example of this complaint about “democratic deficits”; EU decision-making is often seen as too elite- and interest group-driven, and too distant from public preferences (Follesdal and Hix 2006; Mair 2007). Brexit as a vote against international cooperation and extensive coordination is a reflection of this public perception of the EU. The nationalist backlash that has animated populist parties recently builds off of this anxiety over and distaste toward global governance. The cosmopolitan elites that supposedly direct international institutions are seen as having made bad decisions (e.g., the financial crisis) and as holding preferences far removed from those of the average national voter. Populist leaders thus call for a return to national priorities and a rejection of global cooperation, as the quote from Marine Le Pen at the start of this article illustrates. As Mughan, Bean, and McAllister (2003, 619) points out, “the economic basis of their [populist parties’] appeal [lies] in their rejection of the postwar social democratic consensus. Taking as a starting date the end of the Second World War we can, with a nod to national variations, pick out four elements that have characterised the domestic politics of Western Europe in the ensuing four decades: social democracy, corporatism, the welfare state and Keynesianism. It is on the fertile ground of the foundering of these four pillars that the new (populist) parties have taken root.” Globalization by making international cooperation ever more necessary thus contributes to legitimacy problems for mainstream political parties and may generate public dissatisfaction with their governments and democracy.